Arnold et al., 2010 Arnold and Delp, 2011). When combined with detailed muscle architecture measurements, both active and passive muscle–tendon forces and muscle fascicle length change can be determined (e.g. Delp et al., 1990 Hatze, 1977 Modenese et al., 2011), permitting predictions of muscle–tendon kinematics and moment arms across a range of three-dimensional (3D) joint positions. Several human models have been developed (e.g. Musculoskeletal models have become important tools for studying the mechanics, energetics and control of locomotion. This study represents an important step in understanding the integrated function of the neuromusculoskeletal systems in chimpanzee locomotion. Comparisons with a similar human musculoskeletal model indicate that chimpanzees are better suited for force production over a larger range of joint positions than humans. Sensitivity analyses provided information on the parameters that model predictions are most and least sensitive to, which offers important context for interpreting future results obtained with the model. Muscle–tendon moment arms predicted by the model were generally in good agreement with tendon-excursion estimates from cadaveric specimens. The model permits calculation of 3D muscle moment arms, muscle–tendon lengths and isometric muscle forces over a wide range of joint positions. Muscle architecture data, such as muscle masses, fascicle lengths and pennation angles, were drawn from literature sources. The model includes geometric representations of bones and joints, as well as 35 muscle–tendon units that were represented using 44 Hill-type muscle models. Here, we described a detailed three-dimensional (3D) musculoskeletal model of the chimpanzee pelvis and hind limb. A chimpanzee musculoskeletal model would allow integration across a wide range of laboratory-based experimental data, providing new insights into the determinants of their locomotor performance capabilities, as well as the origins and evolution of human bipedalism. Chimpanzees are facultative bipeds and our closest living relatives, and have provided numerous important insights into our own evolution. However, most work has been in modern humans, with few applications in other species. Musculoskeletal models have become important tools for studying a range of muscle-driven movements.
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